Subfields in Psychology

Psychologists specialize in a host of different areas within the field and identify
themselves by many different labels. A sampling of those focal areas is presented
to give you an idea of the breadth of psychology’s content as well as the many different
settings in which it is found. Additionally, many psychologists teach psychology in
academic institutions from high schools to graduate programs in universities.

The field of psychology encompasses both research, through which we learn fundamental
things about human and animal behavior, and practice, through which that knowledge
is applied in helping to solve problems and promote healthy human development. In
each of the subfields there are psychologists who work primarily as researchers, others
who work primarily as practitioners, and many who do both (scientist-practitioners).
Indeed, one of psychology’s most unique and important characteristics is its coupling
of science and practice, which stimulates continual advancement of both.

 

Clinical Psychologists assess and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. These range from short-term
crises, such as difficulties resulting from adolescent rebellion, to more severe,
chronic conditions such as schizophrenia.

Some clinical psychologists treat specific problems exclusively, such as phobias or
clinical depression. Others focus on specific populations: youngsters, ethnic minority
groups, gays and lesbians, and the elderly, for instance. They also consult with physicians
on physical problems that have underlying psychological causes.

 

Cognitive and perceptual psychologists study human perception, thinking, and memory. Cognitive psychologists are interested
in questions such as, how does the mind represent reality? How do people learn? How
do people understand and produce language? Cognitive psychologists also study reasoning,
judgment, and decision making. Cognitive and perceptual psychologists frequently collaborate
with behavioral neuroscientists to understand the biological bases of perception or
cognition or with researchers in other areas of psychology to better understand the
cognitive biases in the thinking of people with depression, for example.

 

Counseling psychologists help people recognize their strengths and resources to cope with their problems.
Counseling psychologists do counseling/psychotherapy, teaching, and scientific research
with individuals of all ages, families, and organizations (e.g., schools, hospitals,
businesses). Counseling psychologists help people understand and take action on career
and work problems. They pay attention to how problems and people differ across life
stages. Counseling psychologists have great respect for the influence of differences
among people (such as race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, disability status)
on psyc_newhological well-being. They believe that behavior is affected by many things,
including qualities of the individual (e.g., psychological, physical, or spiritual
factors) and factors in the person’s environment (e.g., family, society, and cultural
groups).

 

Developmental psychologists study the psychological development of the human being that takes place throughout
life. Until recently, the primary focus was on childhood and adolescence, the most
formative years. But as life expectancy in this country approaches 80 years, developmental
psychologists are becoming increasingly interested in aging, especially in researching
and developing ways to help elderly people stay as independent as possible.

 

Educational psychologists concentrate on how effective teaching and learning take place. They consider a variety
of factors, such as human abilities, student motivation, and the effect on the classroom
of the diversity of race, ethnicity, and culture that makes up America.

 

Engineering psychologists conduct research on how people work best with machines. For example, how can a computer
be designed to prevent fatigue and eye strain? What arrangement of an assembly line
makes production most efficient? What is a reasonable workload? Most engineering psychologists
work in industry, but some are employed by the government, particularly the Department
of Defense. They are often known as human factors specialists.

 

Evolutionary psychologists study how evolutionary principles such as mutation, adaptation, and selective fitness
influence human thought, feeling, and behavior. Because of their focus on genetically
shaped behaviors that influence an organism’s chances of survival, evolutionary psychologists
study mating, aggression, helping behavior, and communication. Evolutionary psychologists
are particularly interested in paradoxes and problems of evolution. For example, some
behaviors that were highly adaptive in our evolutionary past may no longer be adaptive
in the modern world.

 

Experimental psychologists are interested in a wide range of psyc_newhological phenomena, including cognitive
processes, comparative psychology (cross-species comparisons), learning and conditioning,
and psychophysics (the relationship between the physical brightness of a light and
how bright the light is perceived to be, for example). Experimental psychologists
study both human and nonhuman animals with respect to their abilities to detect what
is happening in a particular environment and to acquire and maintain responses to
what is happening.

Experimental psychologists work with the empirical method (collecting data) and the
manipulation of variables within the laboratory as a way of understanding certain
phenomena and advancing scientific knowledge. In addition to working in academic settings,
experimental psychologists work in places as diverse as manufacturing settings, zoos,
and engineering firms.

 

Forensic psychologists apply psychological principles to legal issues. Their expertise is often essential
in court. They can, for example, help a judge decide which parent should have custody
of a child or evaluate a defendant’s mental competence to stand trial. Forensic psychologists
also conduct research on jury behavior or eyewitness testimony. Some forensic psychologists
are trained in both psychology and the law.

 

Health psychologists specialize in how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and
illness. They study how patients handle illness; why some people don’t follow medical
advice; and the most effective ways to control pain or to change poor health habits.
They also develop health care strategies that foster emotional and physical well-being.

Psychologists team up with medical personnel in private practice and in hospitals
to provide patients with complete health care. They educate medical staff about psychological
problems that arise from the pain and stress of illness and about symptoms that may
seem to be physical in origin but actually have psyc_newhological causes.

Health psychologists also investigate issues that affect a large segment of society,
and develop and implement programs to deal with these problems. Examples are teenage
pregnancy, substance abuse, risky sexual behaviors, smoking, lack of exercise, and
poor diet.

 

Industrial/organizational psychologists apply psychological principles and research methods to the work place in the interest
of improving productivity and the quality of work life. Many serve as human resources
specialists, helping organizations with staffing, training, and employee development.
And others work as management consultants in such areas as strategic planning, quality
management, and coping with organizational change.

 

Neuropsychologists (and behavioral neuropsychologists) explore the relationships between brain systems
and behavior. For example, behavioral neuropsychologists may study the way the brain
creates and stores memories, or how various diseases and injuries of the brain affect
emotion, perception, and behavior. They design tasks to study normal brain functions
with new imaging techniques, such as positron emission tomography (PET), single photon
emission computed tomography (SPECT), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).

Clinical neuropsychologists also assess and treat people. And with the dramatic increase
in the number of survivors of traumatic brain injury over the past 30 years, neuropsychologists
are working with health teams to help brain-injured people resume productive lives.

 

Quantitative and measurement psychologists focus on methods and techniques for designing experiments and analyzing psychological
data. Some develop new methods for performing analysis; others create research strategies
to assess the effect of social and educational programs and psychological treatment.
They develop and evaluate mathematical models for psychological tests. They also propose
methods for evaluating the quality and fairness of the tests.

 

Rehabilitation psychologists work with stroke and accident victims, people with mental retardation, and those
with developmental disabilities caused by such conditions as cerebral palsy, epilepsy,
and autism. They help clients adapt to their situation, frequently working with other
health care professionals. They deal with issues of personal adjustment, interpersonal
relations, the work world, and pain management.

Rehabilitation psychologists are also involved in public health programs to prevent
disabilities, including those caused by violence and substance abuse. And they testify
in court as expert witnesses about the causes and effects of a disability and a person’s
rehabilitation needs.

 

School psychologists work directly with public and private schools. They assess and counsel students,
consult with parents and school staff, and conduct behavioral interventions when appropriate.
Most school districts employ psychologists full time.

 

Social psychologists study how a person’s mental life and behavior are shaped by interactions with other
people. They are interested in all aspects of interpersonal relationships, including
both individual and group influences, and seek ways to improve such interactions.
For example, their research helps us understand how people form attitudes toward others,
and when these are harmful – as in the case of prejudice – suggests ways to change
them.

Social psychologists are found in a variety of settings, from academic institutions
(where they teach and conduct research), to advertising agencies (where they study
consumer attitudes and preferences), to businesses and government agencies (where
they help with a variety of problems in organization and management).

 

Sports psychologists help athletes refine their focus on competition goals, become more motivated, and
learn to deal with the anxiety and fear of failure that often accompany competition.
The field is growing as sports of all kinds become more and more competitive and attract
younger children.